Miguel (Mike) Pappolla, MD, PhD

What it is

Neurology is the branch of medicine devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of the nervous system — the brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, and the muscles they control. Neurologists evaluate conditions ranging from stroke, epilepsy, and multiple sclerosis to traumatic brain injury, movement disorders, headache, and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's. The specialty requires mastery of neuroanatomy, neurophysiology, and the interpretation of complex diagnostic studies including MRI, EEG, EMG, and nerve conduction studies.

What it takes to become certified

Board certification in neurology is granted by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology (ABPN). The pathway begins with four years of medical school, followed by a one-year internship in internal medicine or a related clinical discipline. Candidates then complete a three-year ACGME-accredited neurology residency, during which they develop proficiency across the full spectrum of neurological disease. After residency, candidates must pass a rigorous written examination covering clinical neurology, neuroscience, and neurological subspecialties. Maintenance of certification requires ongoing continuing medical education, self-assessment activities, and periodic recertification examinations throughout a physician's career.

What it is

Interventional pain medicine is a subspecialty focused on the diagnosis and minimally invasive treatment of chronic and acute pain conditions using procedural techniques. These include epidural steroid injections, nerve blocks, spinal cord stimulation, radiofrequency ablation, and other image-guided interventions targeting the spine, joints, and peripheral nervous system. Pain medicine physicians treat conditions such as chronic back and neck pain, complex regional pain syndrome, neuropathic pain, cancer pain, and pain arising from musculoskeletal or neurological injury.

What it takes to become certified

Board certification in pain medicine is administered by the American Board of Anesthesiology, the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, the American Board of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, and the American Board of Emergency Medicine — reflecting the multidisciplinary nature of the field. Candidates must first be board-certified in a primary specialty such as neurology. They then complete a one-year ACGME-accredited fellowship in pain medicine, gaining supervised experience in interventional procedures and comprehensive pain management. Following fellowship, candidates must pass a written certification examination. Ongoing maintenance of certification requires continuing education, practice performance assessment, and periodic recertification.

What it is

Anatomic pathology is the branch of medicine concerned with the structural and compositional changes in tissues and organs caused by disease. Physicians in this specialty examine biopsies, surgical specimens, and autopsies to identify the precise nature of a disease at the cellular level — providing the definitive diagnoses that guide treatment decisions across surgery, oncology, neurology, and virtually every other clinical discipline.

What it takes to become certified

Certification in anatomic pathology requires completion of medical school followed by an ACGME-accredited residency program, typically lasting three to four years. Candidates must then pass a rigorous written and practical examination administered by the American Board of Pathology (ABPath). Maintenance of certification requires ongoing continuing medical education and periodic recertification.

What it is

Neuropathology is a subspecialty focused on the diagnosis of diseases of the nervous system — the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves — through the examination of tissue. Neuropathologists analyze biopsy and autopsy material to identify conditions such as brain tumors, neurodegenerative diseases, inflammatory disorders, and traumatic brain injury at the microscopic level. This discipline is essential for confirming diagnoses that cannot be fully established through imaging or clinical examination alone.

What it takes to become certified

Board certification in neuropathology requires prior certification in anatomic pathology, followed by completion of a one- to two-year fellowship in neuropathology at an ACGME-accredited program. Candidates must then pass a subspecialty examination administered by the American Board of Pathology. The combination of pathology training and neuropathology fellowship represents one of the most demanding certification pathways in medicine.

What it is

Clinical pathology encompasses the laboratory medicine disciplines — including hematology, microbiology, clinical chemistry, immunology, and blood banking — that support diagnosis and patient management through the analysis of blood, urine, cerebrospinal fluid, and other body fluids. Clinical pathologists oversee laboratory operations and interpret complex test results that inform care across virtually every medical specialty.

What it takes to become certified

Certification in clinical pathology requires completion of an ACGME-accredited residency in pathology, which may be combined with anatomic pathology training in a four-year program. Candidates must pass the American Board of Pathology's clinical pathology examination. Maintaining certification requires demonstrated ongoing competency through continuing education and periodic assessment.